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- Analyse (math) (126)
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- Analysis (math) (121)
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- Development (115)
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- Interview (109)
- Europa (107)
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- Car (102)
- Speed (102)
- Unfallrekonstruktion (99)
- injury) (99)
- Belastung (98)
- Verletzung) (98)
- Load (97)
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- Schweregrad (Unfall (97)
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- Driving (veh) (84)
- Tunnel (84)
- Ursache (84)
- Benutzung (83)
- Dauerhaftigkeit (83)
- Decrease (82)
- Durability (82)
- Freeway (82)
- Use (82)
- Cause (81)
- Severity (accid (81)
- Data acquisition (80)
- Equipment (80)
- Ausrüstung (79)
- Schweregrad (Unfall, Verletzung) (79)
- Straßennetz (79)
- Anfahrversuch (78)
- Concrete (78)
- Cost (78)
- Education (78)
- Impact study (78)
- Modification (78)
- Radfahrer (78)
- Road network (78)
- Verhütung (78)
- Pkw (77)
- Prognose (77)
- Severity (accid, injury) (77)
- Norm (tech) (76)
- Erziehung (75)
- Maintenance (74)
- Surfacing (74)
- Unterhaltung (73)
- Forecast (72)
- Veränderung (72)
- Fahrerassistenzsystem (71)
- Forschungsarbeit (71)
- Jugendlicher (71)
- Passives Sicherheitssystem (71)
- Cyclist (70)
- Decke (Straße) (70)
- Emission (70)
- Fahranfänger (69)
- Organisation (69)
- Straßenbau (69)
- Reconstruction (accid) (68)
- Vehicle mile (68)
- Adolescent (67)
- Data bank (67)
- Evaluation (67)
- Fahrleistung (67)
- Fahrtauglichkeit (67)
- Impact test (veh) (67)
- Road construction (67)
- Verkehrssteuerung (67)
- Sachschaden (66)
- Bemessung (65)
- Damage (65)
- Driver assistance system (65)
- Kind (65)
- Kontrolle (65)
- Traffic control (65)
- Wirksamkeitsuntersuchung (65)
- Attitude (psychol) (64)
- Passive safety system (64)
- Specification (standard) (64)
- Information (63)
- Recently qualified driver (63)
- Research project (62)
- Temperatur (62)
- Year (62)
- Child (61)
- Einstellung (psychol) (61)
- Jahr (61)
- Lärm (61)
- Stadt (61)
- Straßenverkehr (61)
- Surveillance (61)
- Urban area (61)
- Temperature (60)
- Verwaltung (60)
- Bituminöses Mischgut (59)
- Noise (59)
- Rechenmodell (59)
- Administration (58)
- Bituminous mixture (58)
- Driver training (58)
- Fahrausbildung (58)
- Surface (58)
- Collision (57)
- Construction (56)
- Deformation (56)
- Design (overall design) (56)
- Mathematical model (56)
- Oberfläche (56)
- Tragfähigkeit (56)
- EU (55)
- Insasse (55)
- Modell (55)
- Straßenentwurf (55)
- Verformung (55)
- Verkehrsinfrastruktur (55)
- On the spot accident investigation (54)
- Zusammenstoß (54)
- Festigkeit (53)
- Highway design (53)
- Motorcyclist (53)
- Motorradfahrer (53)
- Repair (53)
- Untersuchung am Unfallort (53)
- Wirtschaftlichkeit (53)
- Active safety system (52)
- Alte Leute (52)
- Economic efficiency (52)
- Layout (52)
- Aktives Sicherheitssystem (51)
- Bearing capacity (51)
- Gestaltung (51)
- Information documentation (51)
- Old people (51)
- Qualität (51)
- Bauwerk (50)
- Eigenschaft (50)
- Motorrad (50)
- Quality (50)
- Drunkenness (49)
- Quality assurance (49)
- Qualitätssicherung (49)
- Vehicle occupant (49)
- Zustandsbewertung (49)
- Bau (48)
- Knotenpunkt (48)
- Properties (48)
- Trunkenheit (48)
- Umwelt (48)
- Instandsetzung (47)
- Motorcycle (47)
- Straßenverkehrsrecht (47)
- Traffic flow (47)
- Verkehrsteilnehmer (47)
- Boden (46)
- Frontalzusammenstoß (46)
- Führerschein (46)
- Grenzwert (46)
- Lebenszyklus (46)
- Limit (46)
- Pollutant (46)
- Strength (mater) (46)
- Condition survey (45)
- Experience (human) (45)
- Traffic regulations (45)
- Automatisch (44)
- Droge (44)
- Environment (44)
- Erfahrung (menschl) (44)
- Head on collision (44)
- Standardisierung (44)
- Drugs (43)
- Griffigkeit (43)
- Model (not math) (43)
- Road user (43)
- Stahl (43)
- Baustoff (42)
- Engineering structure (42)
- Junction (42)
- Soil (42)
- Steel (42)
- Transport infrastructure (42)
- Verkehrsfluss (42)
- International (41)
- Wahrnehmung (41)
- Wasser (41)
- Water (41)
- Witterung (41)
- Baustelle (40)
- Betonstraße (Oberbau) (40)
- Classification (40)
- Error (40)
- Landstraße (40)
- Messgerät (40)
- Perception (40)
- Rigid pavement (40)
- Standardization (40)
- Cost benefit analysis (39)
- Organization (association) (39)
- Sound (39)
- Driving licence (38)
- Erste Hilfe (38)
- Klassifizierung (38)
- Medical examination (38)
- Medizinische Untersuchung (38)
- Schadstoff (38)
- Schall (38)
- Air pollution (37)
- Automatic (37)
- Construction site (37)
- Driver information (37)
- Life cycle (37)
- Medical aspects (37)
- Medizinische Gesichtspunkte (37)
- Risikobewertung (37)
- Traffic lane (37)
- Weather (37)
- Deckschicht (36)
- Fahrerinformation (36)
- First aid (36)
- Gutachten (36)
- Luftverunreinigung (36)
- Risk assessment (36)
- Sensor (36)
- Sicherheitsgurt (36)
- Skill (road user) (36)
- Technologie (36)
- Wirtschaftlichkeitsrechnung (36)
- Age (35)
- Alter (35)
- Apparatus (measuring) (35)
- Bindemittel (35)
- Bitumen (35)
- Expert opinion (35)
- Fahrbahn (35)
- Fahrbahnmarkierung (35)
- Fahrstreifen (35)
- Material (constr) (35)
- Schutzeinrichtung (35)
- Skidding resistance (35)
- Technology (35)
- Fehler (34)
- Nacht (34)
- Night (34)
- Oberflächentextur (34)
- Rural road (34)
- Versuchsstrecke (34)
- Bauweise (33)
- Binder (33)
- Experimental road (33)
- Mobilität (33)
- Schallpegel (33)
- Sound level (33)
- Wearing course (33)
- Asphaltstraße (Oberbau) (32)
- Carriageway marking (32)
- Communication (32)
- Fuge (32)
- Kommunikation (32)
- Psychological examination (32)
- Road traffic (32)
- Safety belt (32)
- Spannbeton (32)
- Surface texture (32)
- Fahrgeschicklichkeit (31)
- Krankheit (31)
- Safety fence (31)
- Umweltschutz (31)
- Accident reconstruction (30)
- Anthropometric dummy (30)
- Immission (30)
- Metal bridge (30)
- Numerisches Modell (30)
- Reifen (30)
- Tyre (30)
- Winterdienst (30)
- Cracking (29)
- Emergency (29)
- Güterverkehr (29)
- Highway traffic (29)
- Illness (29)
- Notfall (29)
- Rissbildung (29)
- Schutzhelm (29)
- Telematik (29)
- Winter maintenance (29)
- Arzneimittel (28)
- Before and after study (28)
- Construction method (28)
- Digital model (28)
- Dummy (28)
- Einbau (28)
- Flexible pavement (28)
- Head (28)
- Kopf (28)
- Laying (28)
- Medication (28)
- Pollution concentration (28)
- Prestressed concrete (28)
- Vorher Nachher Untersuchung (28)
- Crash helmet (27)
- Fire (27)
- Joint (structural) (27)
- Kapazität (Straße) (27)
- Pavement (27)
- Psychologie (27)
- Psychologische Untersuchung (27)
- Stability (27)
- Telematics (27)
- Verkehrssicherheit (27)
- Biomechanik (26)
- Bridge deck (26)
- Carriageway (26)
- Database (26)
- Deicing (26)
- Fahrbahntafel (26)
- Human factor (26)
- In situ (26)
- Nitrogen oxide (26)
- Oberbau (26)
- Psychology (26)
- Biomechanics (25)
- Bremsung (25)
- Corrosion (25)
- Environment protection (25)
- Fahrstabilität (25)
- Korrosion (25)
- Menschlicher Faktor (25)
- Mobility (25)
- Nachhaltige Entwicklung (25)
- Recycling (25)
- Reinforced concrete (25)
- Stahlbeton (25)
- Stickoxid (25)
- Sichtbarkeit (25)
- Auftaumittel (24)
- Datenverarbeitung (24)
- Detection (24)
- Laboratorium (24)
- Reaction (human) (24)
- Seitlicher Zusammenstoß (24)
- Standfestigkeit (24)
- Sustainability (24)
- Traffic sign (24)
- Vehicle handling (24)
- Verkehrszeichen (24)
- Adhäsion (23)
- Aggregate (23)
- Annual average daily traffic (23)
- Auffahrunfall (23)
- Braking (23)
- Capacity (road, footway) (23)
- Level of service (23)
- Manufacture (23)
- PKW (23)
- Personality (23)
- Persönlichkeit (23)
- Psychologische Gesichtspunkte (23)
- Publicity (23)
- Querschnitt (23)
- Reaktionsverhalten (23)
- Rear end collision (23)
- Sichtbarkeit (23)
- Side impact (23)
- Software (23)
- Steifigkeit (23)
- Vegetation (23)
- Verkehrsqualität (23)
- Werbung (23)
- Adhesion (22)
- Airbag (22)
- Brustkorb (22)
- Brückenbelag (22)
- Comprehension (22)
- Cross section (22)
- Data processing (22)
- Ermüdung (mater) (22)
- Fatigue (mater) (22)
- Feinstaub (22)
- Herstellung (22)
- Pollution (22)
- Shock (22)
- Stiffness (22)
- Tag (24 Stunden) (22)
- Traffic engineering (22)
- Zuschlagstoff (22)
- Activity report (21)
- Asphalt (21)
- Bicycle (21)
- Bridge surfacing (21)
- Erdarbeiten (21)
- Fahrrad (21)
- Fahrsimulator (21)
- Gussasphalt (21)
- Interior (veh) (21)
- Lichtsignal (21)
- Offender (21)
- Politik (21)
- Rehabilitation (21)
- Schicht (21)
- Stahlbrücke (21)
- Versiegelung (21)
- Articulated vehicle (20)
- Behinderter (20)
- Beschilderung (20)
- Bus (20)
- Continuous (20)
- Earthworks (20)
- Fahrzeuginnenraum (20)
- Finanzierung (20)
- Gelenkfahrzeug (20)
- Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkung (20)
- Gesetzesübertretung (20)
- Kompatibilität (20)
- Kontinuierlich (20)
- Laboratory (not an organization) (20)
- Population (20)
- Porous asphalt (20)
- Psychological aspects (20)
- Reinforcement (in mater) (20)
- Residential area (20)
- Retraining of drivers (20)
- Schlag (20)
- School (20)
- Schule (20)
- Speed limit (20)
- Straßenseitenfläche (20)
- Thorax (20)
- Traffic restraint (20)
- Tätigkeitsbericht (20)
- Wohngebiet (20)
- Antikollisionssystem (19)
- Attention (19)
- Aufmerksamkeit (19)
- Bevölkerung (19)
- Bewehrung (19)
- Durchlässigkeit (19)
- Fahrernachschulung (19)
- JDTV (19)
- Kunststoff (19)
- Offence (19)
- Organization (19)
- Orthotropic plate (19)
- Permeability (19)
- Personal (19)
- Policy (19)
- Signalization (19)
- Simulator (driving) (19)
- Traffic signal (19)
- Unfallschwerpunkt (19)
- Verkehrsbeschränkung (19)
- Accident black spot (18)
- Accompanied driving (18)
- Begleitetes Fahren (18)
- Black ice (18)
- Chemical analysis (18)
- Compatibility (18)
- Compliance (specif) (18)
- Delivery vehicle (18)
- Driving test (18)
- Elektronische Fahrhilfe (18)
- Entscheidungsprozess (18)
- Fahrprüfung (18)
- Fahrzeugsitz (18)
- Financing (18)
- Glatteis (18)
- Goods traffic (18)
- Konzentration (chem) (18)
- Leg (human) (18)
- Pavement Management System (18)
- Personnel (18)
- Plastic material (18)
- Rechtsübertreter (18)
- Recycling (mater) (18)
- Reflexionsgrad (18)
- Stress (18)
- Stress (psychol) (18)
- Time (18)
- Verständnis (18)
- Vorschrifteneinhaltung (18)
- Wet road (18)
- Abbiegen (17)
- Absorption (17)
- Chemische Analyse (17)
- Concentration (chem) (17)
- Decision process (17)
- Disabled person (17)
- Dränasphalt (17)
- Feuer (17)
- Langfristig (17)
- Layer (17)
- Long term (17)
- Nasse Straße (17)
- Provisorisch (17)
- Prüfstand (17)
- Public relations (17)
- Reflectivity (17)
- Rückfalltäter (17)
- Sample (mater) (17)
- Seat (veh) (17)
- Spreading (17)
- USA (17)
- Vehicle regulations (17)
- Verkehrsuntersuchung (17)
- Wear (17)
- Öffentlichkeitsarbeit (17)
- Blutalkoholgehalt (16)
- Coefficient of friction (16)
- Collision avoidance system (16)
- Contact (tyre road) (16)
- Day (24 hour period) (16)
- Drainage (16)
- Emission control (16)
- Entwässerung (16)
- Fahreignung (16)
- Krankenhaus (16)
- Police (16)
- Polizei (16)
- Recidivist (16)
- Rehabilitation (road user) (16)
- Reibungsbeiwert (16)
- Service area (16)
- Severity (acid (16)
- Technische Vorschriften (Kraftfahrzeug) (16)
- Temporary (16)
- Test rig (16)
- Tragschicht (16)
- Vereinigtes Königreich (16)
- Verkehrsstauung (16)
- Verkehrszusammensetzung (16)
- Verteilung (mater) (16)
- Warning (16)
- Weight (16)
- Wirkungsanalyse (16)
- Zeit (16)
- Zement (16)
- Abdichtung (15)
- Air bag (restraint system) (15)
- Alignment (15)
- Arterial highway (15)
- Bepflanzung (15)
- Cement (15)
- Control (15)
- Ebenheit (15)
- Emissionskontrolle (15)
- Empfindlichkeit (15)
- Finite element method (15)
- Hard shoulder (15)
- Hospital (15)
- Linienführung (15)
- Mechanik (15)
- Ort (Position) (15)
- Particulate matter (15)
- Probability (15)
- Radar (15)
- Radweg (15)
- Sealing coat (on top of the surfacing) (15)
- Seitenstreifen (befestigt) (15)
- Sensitivity (15)
- Shear (15)
- Tank Rast Anlage (15)
- Traffic composition (15)
- Traffic density (15)
- Traffic survey (15)
- Transport (15)
- Wahrscheinlichkeit (15)
- Abdichtung (Brücke) (14)
- Arbeitsgruppe (14)
- Austria (14)
- Autonomes Fahren (14)
- Autonomous driving (14)
- Beam (14)
- Bein (menschl) (14)
- Blood alcohol content (14)
- Brücken Management System (14)
- Detektion (14)
- Electronic driving aid (14)
- Ergonomics (14)
- Fahrzeugabstand (14)
- France (14)
- Frau (14)
- Gebiet (14)
- Intelligent transport system (14)
- Location (14)
- Market (14)
- Markt (14)
- Occupation (14)
- Region (14)
- Risk taking (14)
- Tier (14)
- Trend (stat) (14)
- Verschiebung (14)
- Waterproofing (14)
- Zusammensetzung (14)
- Österreich (14)
- Überholen (14)
- Achslast (13)
- Animal (13)
- Asphaltoberbau (13)
- Betriebshof (13)
- Bridge management system (13)
- Cycle track (13)
- Einfahrt (13)
- Elektrofahrzeug (13)
- Epoxidharz (13)
- Evenness (13)
- Frankreich (13)
- Frequency (13)
- Gesetzesdurchführung (13)
- Impact test (13)
- Industrierückstand (13)
- Innenstadt (13)
- Kunstharz (13)
- Mechanics (13)
- Mix design (13)
- Moisture content (13)
- Movement (13)
- Official approval (13)
- Optimum (13)
- Overtaking (13)
- Probe (13)
- Sample (stat) (13)
- Stichprobe (13)
- Synthetic resin (13)
- Town centre (13)
- Tunnel lining (13)
- Tunnelauskleidung (13)
- Umweltverschmutzung (13)
- United Kingdom (13)
- Wassergehalt (13)
- Working group (13)
- Zeitreihe (stat) (13)
- Überschlagen (13)
- Abnutzung (12)
- Ageing (12)
- Auftrag (12)
- Axle load (12)
- Beschichtung (12)
- By product (12)
- Coating (12)
- Compaction (12)
- Congestion (traffic) (12)
- Contract (12)
- Deflection (12)
- Depot (transp) (12)
- Digitale Bildverarbeitung (12)
- Driving (12)
- Durchbiegung (12)
- Dynamics (12)
- Dynamik (12)
- Electric vehicle (12)
- Enforcement (law) (12)
- Entrance (12)
- Epoxy resin (12)
- Freizeit (12)
- Frost (12)
- Genauigkeit (12)
- Gewicht (12)
- Hydrocarbon (12)
- Intelligentes Transportsystem (12)
- Interchange (12)
- Japan (12)
- Kohlenwasserstoff (12)
- Leuchtdichte (12)
- Luminance (12)
- Lärmschutzwand (12)
- Man (12)
- Mann (12)
- Müdigkeit (12)
- Nummer (12)
- Parken (12)
- Parking (12)
- Platte (12)
- Porosity (12)
- Reinigung (12)
- Road safety (12)
- Seite (12)
- Slab (12)
- Stadtplanung (12)
- Town planning (12)
- Vehicle spacing (12)
- Verarbeitbarkeit (12)
- Woman (12)
- Workability (12)
- Öffentlicher Verkehr (12)
- Adaptation (psychol) (11)
- Ankündigung (11)
- Anpassung (psychol) (11)
- Anschlussstelle (11)
- Balken (11)
- Beinahe Unfall (11)
- Brand (11)
- Bremse (11)
- Bruch (mech) (11)
- CEN (11)
- Cleaning (11)
- Costs (11)
- Damm (11)
- Deflectograph (11)
- Durchbiegungsmesser (11)
- EU directive (11)
- Einsatzfahrzeug (11)
- Emergency vehicle (11)
- Entdeckung (11)
- Ergonomie (11)
- Fatigue (human) (11)
- Fuel consumption (11)
- Full depth asphalt pavement (11)
- Gemeindeverwaltung (11)
- Grundwasser (11)
- Heat (11)
- Hohlraumgehalt (11)
- Human body (11)
- Image processing (11)
- Inventory (11)
- Kontakt Reifen Straße (11)
- Lenken (Fahrzeug) (11)
- Local authority (11)
- Metallbrücke (11)
- Methode der finiten Elemente (11)
- Near miss (11)
- Noise barrier (11)
- Non destructive testing (11)
- Overturning (veh) (11)
- Pavement management system (11)
- Polymer (11)
- Polyurethan (11)
- Private transport (11)
- Public transport (11)
- Radio (11)
- Recreation (11)
- Roadbase (11)
- Rundfunk (11)
- Schutz (11)
- Seepage (11)
- Sehvermögen (11)
- Sickerung (11)
- Side (11)
- Sociology (11)
- Soziologie (11)
- State of the art report (11)
- Steering (process) (11)
- Straßenverkehrstechnik (11)
- Verbundbrücke (11)
- Verdichtung (11)
- Verstärkung (allg) (11)
- Vision (11)
- Waterproofing course (bridge) (11)
- Wirbelsäule (11)
- Wärme (11)
- Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung (11)
- Addiction (10)
- Alcohol (10)
- Alkohol (10)
- Alterung (mater) (10)
- Arbeitsbedingungen (10)
- Audit (10)
- Ausschreibung (10)
- Berufsausübung (10)
- Brake (10)
- Chippings (10)
- Composite bridge (10)
- Depth (10)
- Dicke (10)
- Embankment (10)
- Eye movement (10)
- Fahrlehrer (10)
- Fahrzeugrückhaltesystem (10)
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- stat) (9)
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Relevant accident related factors : risk and frequencies of contributing to road traffic accidents
(2009)
In the course of the European Project TRACE (Traffic Accident Causation in Europe) an attempt was made to analyse the cause of road traffic accidents from a factors' point of view. By literature review the most important independent risk factors for traffic accidents were identified to be speed, alcohol intake, male gender, young age, cell phone use, and fatigue. However, the impact of an accident related factor also depends on its prevalence in traffic and accidents, respectively. Available to the Partners in the TRACE Project were different accident databases. Causally contributing factors found by accident investigations that are most often coded in accident databases are connected to unadapted speed and inattention. Taking into account the risk increase and the frequency of contribution to accidents the conclusion can be drawn that the most relevant factors for accident causation are: "alcohol", "speed", and "inattention and distraction".
In Germany averagely two million traffic accidents happen each year and emergency medical services are called to more than 400 000 patients. Even though this number is decreasing continuously (due to improvements in the fields of vehicle safety, road construction, and accident prevention) every case is yet a challenge for the rescuers and requires improvements in emergency medicine as well. Especially during diagnostics right at the accident scene, there are only limited instruments available to gain the necessary knowledge of the injuries suffered, to come to essential decisions about treatment or transport. To provide an additional diagnostic aid by scouting and estimating the situation, a software-tool calculating the likeliness of the most frequent severe injuries (AIS 3-6) of front occupants in passenger cars has been developed to deliver this necessary information about particular accident scenarios. To achieve this, logistic likelihood functions have been calculated in a multivariate regression analysis analysing all AIS 3+ injuries in the GIDAS database of the years 1999-2006 that happened more than four times
Crash involvement studies using routine accident and exposure data : a case for case-control designs
(2009)
Fortunately, accident involvement is a rare event: the chance of an individual road user trip to end up in a crash is close to zero. Thus, according to general epidemiological principles one can expect the case-control study design to be especially suitable for quantifying the relative risk (odds ratio) of accident involvement of road users with a certain risk factor as compared to road users that do not have this characteristic. Ideally, of course, the database for such a case-control study should be established by drawing two independent random samples of cases (accidental units) and controls (nonaccidental units), respectively. If, however, special data collection is not an option, it is nevertheless possible to analyze routine accident and exposure data under a case-control design in order to fully exploit the information contained in already existing databases. As a prerequisite, accident and exposure data from different sources are to be combined in a single file of micro or grouped data in a way consistent with the case-control study design. Among other things, the proposed methodological approach offers the possibility to use in-depth data of the GIDAS type also in investigations of active vehicle safety by combining this data with appropriate vehicle trip data collected in mobility surveys.
The SafetyNet project was formulated in part to address the need for safety oriented European road accident data. One of the main tasks included within the project was the development of a methodology for better understanding of accident causation together with the development of an associated database involving data obtained from on-scene or "nearly onscene" accident investigations. Information from these investigations was complemented by data from follow-up interviews with crash participants to determine critical events and contributory factors to the accident occurrence. A method for classification of accident contributing factors, known as DREAM 3.0, was developed and tested in conjunction with the SafetyNet activities. Collection of data and case analysis for some 1 000 individual crashes have recently been completed and inserted into the database and therefore aggregation analyses of the data are now being undertaken. This paper describes the methodology development, an overview of the database and the initial aggregation analyses.
Nowadays, traffic accidents are recorded in historical databases. Regarding the huge quantity of data, the use of data mining tools is essential to help Experts, for automatically extracting relevant information in order to establish and quantify relations between severity and potential factors of accidents. An innovative approach is here proposed for an in depth investigation of real world accidents data base. Mutual information ratio based on conditional entropies is used to quantity the association strength between an accident outcome descriptor (injury severity) and other potential association factors. Information theoretic methods help to select automatically groups of factors mostly responsible of the severity of accident.
A lot of factors are related to a road traffic accident; particularly human factors such as road use characteristic, driving maneuver characteristic and safety attitude are the major ones. As a random factor is also included, so it is necessary to minimize the contribution of a random factor to identify human factors related to a road traffic accident. There are several standpoints for traffic accident analysis, such as vehicle-based, location-based and driver-based. And it is effective to analyze driver-based traffic accident data for discussion on the relation between human factors and accidents. An integrated traffic accident database system was developed for analysis considering driver- accident and violation records by ITARD, and several studies were carried out for the evaluation. Useful data for discussion on the relation between types of collision and traffic violations, and the effect of accident experience to the following accident were obtained.
Methods for analyzing the efficiency of primary safety measures based on real life accident data
(2009)
Primary safety measures are designed to help to avoid accidents or, if this is not possible, to stabilize respectively reduce the dynamics of the vehicle to such an extent that the secondary safety measures are able to act as good as possible. The efficiency of a primary safety measure is a criterion for the effectiveness, with which a system of primary safety succeeds in avoiding or mitigation the severity of accidents within its range of operation and in interactionwith driver and vehicle. Based on Daimler-´s philosophy of the "Real Life Safety" the reflection of the real world accidents in the systems range of operation is both starting point as well as benchmark for its optimization. This paper deals with the methodology to perform assessments of statistical representative efficiency of primary safety measures. To be able to carry out an investigation concerning the efficiency of a primary safety measure in a transparent and comparable way basic definitions and systematics were introduced. Based on these definitions different systematic methods for estimating efficiency were discussed and related to each other. The paper is completed by presenting an example for estimating the efficiency of actual "single" and "multi" connected primary safety systems.
A lack of representative European accident data to aid the development of safety policy, regulation and technological advancement is a major obstacle in the European Union. Data are needed to assess the performance of road and vehicle safety and is also needed to support the development of further actions by stakeholders. This short-paper describes the process of developing a data collection and analysis system designed to partly fill these gaps. A project team with members from 7 countries was set up to devise appropriate variable lists to collect fatal crash data under the following topic levels: accident, road environment, vehicle, and road user, using retrospective detailed police reports (n=1,300). The typical level of detail recorded was a minimum of 150 variables for each accident. The project will enable multidisciplinary information on the circumstances of fatal crashes to be interpreted to provide information on a range of causal factors and events surrounding the collisions.
The Powered Two Wheelers (PTWs) accidents constitute one of the road safety targets in Europe. PTWs users' fatalities represent 15% of EU road fatalities, having increased the last few years, which is quite opposite than other road users casualties. To reduce PTW accidents is necessary to know which the accident causations are from different points of view (human factor, vehicle characteristics, environment, type of accident, situation, etc.). In TRACE project ("Traffic Accident Causation in Europe", under the European Commission 6th Framework Program, 2006-2008,) a specific task was focused on PTW users point of view, analyzing extensive databases to locate the main accident configurations (type of accident, severity, frequency), and an in-depth database to obtain the causation factors, the risk factors for each configuration founded in the extensive databases analysis and the variables associated to each causation factor in the PTW configurations.
The following paper presents the nature and mechanism of injuries sustained in frontal impacts, focusing on car to car impacts. It was found that the body regions most frequently sustaining severe to fatal injuries were the legs and the thorax. The nature and mechanism of the injury sustained was investigated only for the thorax injuries, due to their potentially life threatening nature. The analysis revealed that the most frequent cause of the injury recorded was the seatbelt for low severity injuries and the front structure of the vehicle for higher severity injuries. An analysis of the effect of load limiter technology in the restraint system showed that the proportion of occupants who sustained "no thorax injury" did not increase when a load limiter was fitted to the restraint system. However, a decrease in the "organ" and "organ and skeletal" injuries was observed in the load limiter sample. Sample size and variation mean that these findings are not conclusive.
It is well known that motorcycle riding is fascinating but quite more dangerous than for example car driving. In 2006, 5,091 persons were killed as victims of crashes occurring on public roads in Germany. 52% (2,683) were car occupants, 16% (793) motorcycle riders, 14% (711) pedestrians, 10% (486) bicycle riders, 5% (235) commercial vehicle occupants, 2% (107) riders of smaller powered two-wheelers, called "Mofa, Moped and Mokick". This shows that motorcycle riders recently are the second largest group of killed traffic participants in Germany. Latest information coming from the Federal Statistics predict for the year 2007 the figure of 4,958 killed road victims in total. This would be again a successful reduction (-133 killed persons or "2.6% compared to the year 2006). But the news coming from the Federal Statistics during the year 2007 and at the begin of 2008 did not always tell the same positive story. It is questioned whether the positive trend of substantially reduced figures of killed road user year by year will longer continue for Germany. That means it could be impossible to reach the ambitious target, set by the European Commission, to cut in half the figure of killed road users until the year 2010 " compared to the figure for the year 2001. It was reported that the group of 45 to 49 years old traffic participants (all traffic modes) is conspicuous with an increase of 30% up to 297 killed road users in total from January to August 2007. This increase can be ascribed in particular by an increase of killed motorcycle riders within this age group. Due to mild weather conditions in Germany in 2007 the season for motorcycle riding began relatively early and this may be a main reason for the increase of the figure of killed motorcycle riders by 16% from January to August 2007. With this background the accident occurrence of motorcycles became more and more essential. As part of the actual discussion about historical trends, recent emphases, causes and relevant structures of the events of motorcycle crashes it is evident, to have latest and carefully updated figures coming from both the Federal Statistics and In-depth studies. The paper will give a contribution to this using the German Federal Statistics and in-depth studies, for example GIDAS. Additional data coming from the DEKRA Motorcycle Accident Database as well as from literature are considered, too. The paper will help to describe the current situation of the accident involvement of motorcycles in Germany.
As the official German catalogue of accident causes has difficulty in matching the increasing demands for detailed psychologically relevant accident causation information, a new system, based on a "7 Steps" model, so called ACASS, for analyzing and collecting causation factors of traffic accidents, was implemented in GIDAS in the year 2008. A hierarchical system was developed, which describes the human causation factors in a chronological sequence (from the perception to concrete action errors), considering the logical sequence of basic human functions when reacting to a request for reaction. With the help of this system the human errors of accident participants can be adequately described, as the causes of each range of basic human functions may be divided into their characteristics (influence criteria) and further into specific indicators of these characteristics (e.g. distraction from inside the vehicle as a characteristic of an observation-error and the operation of devices as an indication for distraction from inside the vehicle. The causation factors accordingly classified can be recorded in an economic way as a number is assigned to each basic function, to each characteristic of that basic function and to each indicator of that characteristic. Thus each causation factor can be explicitly described by means of a code of numbers. In a similar way the causation factors based on the technology of the vehicle and the driving environment, which are also subdivided in an equally hierarchical system, can be tagged with a code. Since the causes of traffic accidents can consist of a variety of factors from different ranges and categories, it is possible to tag each accident participant with several causation factors. This also opens the possibility to not only assign causation factors to the accident causer in the sense of the law, but also to other participants involved in the accident, who may have contributed to the development of the accident. The hierarchical layout of the system and the collection of the causation factors with numerical codes allow for the possibility to code information on accident causes even if the causation factor is not known to its full extent or in full detail, given the possibility to code only those cause factors, which are known. Derived from the systematic of the analysis of human accident causes ("7 steps") and from the practical experiences of on-scene interviews of accident participants, a system was set in place, which offers the possibility to extensively record not only human causation factors in a structured form. Furthermore, the analysis of the human causation factors in such a structured way provides a tool, especially for on-scene accident investigations, to conduct the interview of accident participants effectively and in a structured way.
In the course of the EUROPEAN PROJECT TRACE all fatally injured pedestrians autopsied at the Institute for Legal Medicine in Munich in 2004 had been analysed by using the "Human Functional Failure (HFF) analysis" method. It was possible to apply this method although some restrictions have to be taken into account. The results derived from this analysis comprise first the failures the pedestrians (most often "impairment of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities") and the opponents (most often " Non-detection in visibility constraints conditions") faced in the accident, second the conflicts and tasks (pedestrian crossing the street conflicting with a vehicle from the side (which was going ahead on a straight road), the degree of accident involvement (pedestrians often the primary active part), and further the contributing factors to the accident (pedestrians most often "alcohol (> 0.05% BAC)", opponents most often "visibility constraints").
The purpose of this work is to investigate the association between the injuries in motorcycle accident and the main accident configurations. The data were provided by a multicentric case-control study MAIDS regarding the risk of crash and injuries of motorcyclists. Chi-square test was used to evaluate the relationship between the variables and a logistic regression was performed to evaluate the association of injury severity with some variables supposed to be predictive factors. Lesive patterns characterized by internal haemorrhages are mainly associated with fronto-lateral crashes, above all in urban areas. Lacerations or abrasions, mainly reported in torso and lower extremities, are mostly associated with single crashes or accidents in queue also for crashes occurred to low speed (< 50 km/h). The severity of injuries is highly associated with impact speed, regardless of the crash configuration. Fractures and haemorrhages play an important role in determining the severity of injuries. The upper extremities are the most frequently traumatised anatomic areas.
Novice drivers are at high risk for crash involvement. We performed an analysis of causations, injury patterns and distributions of novice drivers in cars and on motorcycles in road traffic as a basis for proper measurements. Method Data of accident and hospital records of novice drivers (licence < 2 years) were analysed focusing the following parameters: injury type, localisation and mechanism, Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS), maximum AIS (MAIS), delta-v, collision speed and other technical parameters and have been compared to those of experienced drivers. In 18352 accidents in the area of Hannover (years1985"2004), 2602 novice drivers and 18214 experienced drivers were recorded having an accident. Novice car drivers were more often and severe injured than experienced and on motorcycles the experienced riders were at higher risk. Novice drivers of both groups sustained more often extremity injuries. 4.5 % novice car drivers were not restraint compared to 3.7 % of the experienced drivers and 6.1 % novice motorcycle drivers did not wear a proper helmet (versus 6.5 %). Severe injuries sustained at a rate of 20 % at collision speeds below 30 km/h and in 80% at collision speeds above 50 km/h. Novice car drivers drove significant older cars. The risk profile of novice drivers is similar to those of drivers older than 65 years. Structural protection and special lectures like skidding courses could be proper remedial action next to harder punishment of violations.
Side impacts, both nearside and farside, have been indicated by research to be responsible for a large proportion of serious injuries from road crashes. This study aimed to compare and contrast the characteristics of nearside and farside crashes in Australia, Germany and the U.S., using the ANCIS, GIDAS and NASS/CDS in-depth-databases, in order to establish the impact and injury severity associated with these crashes, and the types of injuries sustained. The analyses revealed some interesting similarities, as well as differences, between both nearside and farside crashes, and the emergent trends between the three investigated countries. More specifically, it was indicated that whilst the severity of injury sustained in nearside crashes was slightly greater overall than that found for farside crashes, careful consideration of struck and nonstruck side occupants must be made when considering aspects such as vehicle design and occupant protection.
Pedestrian accidents are one of the major concerns related with road accidents around the world. Portugal has one of the highest rates of pedestrian fatalities in Europe. In this paper an overview conditions were the pedestrian accidents occurred in Portugal is presented. In the last years, a project related with the pedestrian accidents has run in Portugal for the period 2004-2006 where 603 people died, 2097 have been severely injured and about 17000 slightly injured. Within this project all the pedestrian accidents in this period have been analysed providing global information about a wide range of aspects, since location, driver and pedestrian characteristics, weather and road conditions, among others. In addition, 50 in-depth accidents have been investigated and the data collected according the Pendant methodology. For this in-depth methodology detailed information about the accident has been collected, including injuries, vehicle damage, road conditions and road user- behaviour and actions. An accident reconstruction has been carried for each case including the determination of the speeds and driver actions, and the analysis of the contributing factors for the accident. Depending of the accident complexity, different methodologies have been used to analyse these accident, from the classical analytical equations such as Simms and Woods, to the use of detailed computational pedestrian models as those included in the commercial software- PC-Crash-® or Madymo-®. Also one of the goals of our investigation is the development of multibody models and methodologies for the reconstruction of pedestrian accidents. Some of these tools integrated in the commercial software Cosmos Motion-® are presented. The advantages of the different approaches are compared and discussed for some of the accidents investigated. With these tools the impact speed can be determined from the projection distance with analytical tools or PC-Crash-®, but more complex tools should be used to determine speed from the injuries, what is especially important for fatal accidents. The influence of the vehicle geometry and stiffness characteristics is another aspect analysed, where the influence of the vehicle stiffness has been determined using a combined multibody-finite elements approach within the software Madymo-®.
In the context of the COST357 research project, the climatic conditions and requirements for protective helmets for motorcyclists have been examined. The extent to which these factors would influence motorbike handling and accidents in which motorcyclists are involved have also been examined. This project addresses how cognitive abilities of motorcyclists relate to helmet construction factors. In particular, the aspects of motorcycle driver helmets are to be parameterized in order that they may be used subsequently as a basis for future requirement profiles. The task of one working group of the COST357 project has been to analyse accident events and to identify helmet design issues which affect motorcycle drivers while wearing a helmet. This has been achieved by collating accident data across different countries recorded in the course of in-depth investigations at the site of accidents and by combining this with field studies of motorcyclists participating in traffic, but not involved in accidents. This paper presents the study methodology, database and first results of this international survey. The basis of the study has been a total of 424 interviews of motorcyclists and 134 motorcycle accidents, which were collected across Germany, Greece, Italy, Ireland, Portugal and Turkey and combined in a single database.
Each year the traffic accident research teams in Dresden and Hanover provide an in-depth investigation of approximately two thousand accidents, aggregated in the GIDAS database. To accomplish a comprehensive review of each traffic accident recorded, a sensible and thorough encoding of suffered injuries is indispensable. The Abbreviated Injury Scale by AAAM offers a valuable and handy solution to achieve this goal. However, there were a few difficulties in the use of the AIS that came up in the past, which let to necessary improvements for the utilization of the AIS 2005 for GIDAS.
In the last years various new driver information and driver assistance systems made their way into modern vehicles and there are yet countless systems underway. However, expenses for both, the development and the construction of these systems are tremendous. Therefore the interest of evaluating systems keeps growing steadily, not only regarding the results of systems developed in the last years but also regarding system ideas. Only if at least a rough benefit estimation is given, the industry can decide which development should be supported. However, there is still a lack of transparency of possible and useful methods for these kinds of estimations. These were analyses and structured in this study.
The national accident statistics demonstrate that the situation of passenger car side impacts is dominated by car to car accidents. Car side to pole impacts are relatively infrequent events. However the importance of car side to pole impacts is significantly increasing with fatal and seriously injured occupants. For the present study the German in-depth database GIDAS (German In-Depth-Accident Study) and the UK based database CCIS (Co-operative Crash Injury Study) were used. Two approaches were undertaken to better understand the scenario of car to pole impacts. The first part is a statistical analysis of passenger car side to pole impacts to describe the characteristics and their importance relevant to other types of impact and to get further knowledge about the main factors influencing the accident outcome. The second part contains a case by case review on passenger cars first registered 1998 onwards to further investigate this type of impact including regression analysis to assess the relationship between injury severity and pole impact relevant factors.
In an on-going project since 2005, ADAC has been analyzing accidents documented by the ADAC air rescue service. The knowledge derived from real-life accidents serves as a basis for new test configurations and assessment criteria. In 2007, ADAC began looking into the feasibility of international data collection. The idea of Global Accident Prevention was born. Three European partner clubs have begun pioneering the project (ÖAMTC, ANWB, and RACC). The aim is to set up an international accident research network to provide a steady stream of information on road accidents. The FIA Foundation supports ADAC in developing and coordinating this initiative.
One goal of the assessment of the crashworthiness of passenger cars is to characterize the potential of injury outcome to occupants of cars involved in an accident. This can be achieved by the help of an index that puts the number of injured occupants of passenger cars in relation to the number of cars involved in an accident. As a consequence, this index decreases with a lower potential of injury and rises with a higher number of injuries while assuming a fixed number of accidents. Another index is introduced that uses an economical weighting of each injury level. The consequential injury costs are calculated using the average economical costs for lightly, severely and fatally injured persons. The calculation of the safety indices is based on an anonymized sample of accident data provided by the Federal Statistical Office. An index of Mercedes passenger car drivers depending on the year of registration between 1991 and 2006 is compared to the index of drivers of cars of other makes within the same range of registration years.
A change emerges in hospital landscape due to health political measures, which in consequence also influences the pre-clinical medical care of emergencies. The main focus of this study was to gather information about emergency medical care after traffic accidents on the basis of data of Bavarian emergency medical services. In Bavaria, in 2006 it was necessary to call an emergency doctor in the case of 14.261 traffic accidents. Predominantly the patients were provided by land-based life saving appliances, air rescue services were only applied in 19.1 % of the cases. 47.6 % of patients being involved in a traffic accident were transported into a primary health care hospital. A prehospital interval of more than 60 minutes was calculated in 20 % of emergency care. 96.2 % of the patients were transported to hospitals of tertiary or maximum supply by air rescue services. The life saving appliances" readiness for action is however restricted to daylight. A further limitation appeared for routine office hours in hospitals: Only 36.7 % of accidents occurred in this time frame. An increase of hospitalizations in clinics of maximum supply appeared from 2002 until 2006 while simultaneously the prehospital period was extended. To assure a sufficient medical care of seriously injured persons further on, a fulltime and area-wide expostulation of efficient facilities is necessary. For this purpose it is necessary to establish regional trauma networks as well as emergency medical service at night time. Beyond that, a cost efficient compensation of the structural, personnel and logistic expenses has to be assured.
While many medical studies have dealt with the incidence, nature and treatment of polytrauma the injury-causing accident mechanisms are rarely discussed in detail, mostly due to the lack of documentation of the technical aspects. The present prospective study was started in late 2007 and collects data from traffic accidents with most severely injured in six south- German counties and two larger cities for the duration of one year. It is aimed at identifying and documenting all polytrauma cases (ISS ≥ 16) caused by traffic accidents and their crash circumstances. The data collection is based on an interdisciplinary concept to include both the police, emergency dispatch centers, hospitals and fire departments in the region and is completely anonymous. Potentially relevant cases where an emergency physician was called to the scene of a traffic accident are provided by the dispatch center. All three hospitals in the region suited for the treatment of polytraumatised patients record injuries, major diagnostic and surgery data. Data and images from the accident scene are provided by the police and by fire departments. The latter provide information which is usually not available from the police, like deployed airbags, vehicle extrication measures and detailed views of car interiors. The main objective of the study is to determine the structure of road users who sustain a polytrauma, their crash opponents and the injury patterns found in relation to the collision configuration and the protection by seat belts, air bags and other devices. With detailed documentation of vehicle damage and extrication measures the study is also intended to support the development of injury predictors for pre-hospital treatment and provide field data regarding further improvement of technical rescue.
The Centre for Automotive Safety Research (formerly the Road Accident Research Unit) at the University of Adelaide in South Australia has a history of in-depth crash investigation going back to the 1970s. In recent years, our focus has been on studying factors that contribute to road crashes, with an emphasis on the role of road infrastructure. Our method involves crash notification by the South Australian Ambulance Service and detailed investigation of the crash scene usually before the crash-involved vehicles have been moved. This at-scene data collection is supplemented with police crash reports, Coroner- reports including autopsy findings for fatal crashes, case notes from hospitals for all injured persons, structured interviews with crash participants and witnesses, and computerised reconstruction of the events of the crash. One of the most notable research findings to emerge from our in-depth work has been the relationship between travelling speed and the risk of crash involvement. By comparing the calculated free speeds of crash-involved vehicles (cases) with the measured speeds of non-crash-involved vehicles travelling on the same roads at the same time of day (controls), we were able to establish that an exponential relationship exists between travelling speed and the likelihood of involvement in a casualty crash. This was the case for both metropolitan and rural areas. This research prompted the reduction of some speed limits in Australia, which has resulted in notable decreases in crash numbers. Another finding of interest in our recent investigation of 298 mostly daytime crashes in metropolitan Adelaide was that medical conditions make a sizeable contribution to the occurrence of road crashes. We found that almost half of the drivers, riders and pedestrians involved in the collisions had at least one pre-existing medical condition, and half of these individuals had two or more such conditions. We found that a medical condition was the direct causal factor in 13% of the casualty crashes investigated and accounted for 23% of all hospital admission or fatal crash outcomes. A follow-up study of all hospital admissions for road crashes in Adelaide is now going ahead to look further at this problem. The paper also describes studies looking specifically at pedestrian crashes. These include studies of the relationship between travelling speed and the risk of a fatal pedestrian crash, and studies utilising real crash data to validate headforms and test dummies used in the assessment of the safety of new vehicles in the event of a collision with a pedestrian.
The aim of this study is to investigate the differences in car occupant injury severity recorded in AIS 2005 compared to AIS 1990 and to outline the likely effects on future data analysis findings. Occupant injury data in the UK Cooperative Crash Injury Study Database (CCIS) were coded for the period February 2006 to November 2007 using both AIS 1990 and AIS 2005. Data for 1,994 occupants with over 6000 coded injuries were reviewed at the AIS and MAIS level of severities and body regions to determine changes between the two coding methodologies. Overall there was an apparent general trend for fewer injuries to be coded at the AIS 4+ severity and more injuries to be coded at the AIS 2 severity. When these injury trends were reviewed in more detail it was found that the body regions which contributed the most to these changes in severity were the head, thorax and extremities. This is one of the first studies to examine the implications for large databases when changing to an updated method for coding injuries.
Today, Euro NCAP is a well established rating system for passive car safety. The significance of the ratings must however be evaluated by comparison with national accident data. For this purpose accidents with involvement of two passenger cars have been taken from the German National Road Accident Register (record years 1998 to 2004) to evaluate the results of the NCAP frontal impact test configuration. Injury data from both drivers involved in frontal car to car collisions have been sampled and have been compared, using a "Bradley Terry Model" which is well established in the area of paired comparisons. Confounders " like mass ratio of the cars involved, gender of the driver, etc. " have been accounted for in the statistical model. Applying the Bradley Terry Model to the national accident data the safety ranking from Euro NCAP has been validated (safety level: 1star <2 star <3 star <4 star). Significant safety differences are found between cars of the 1 and 2 star category as compared to cars of the 3 and 4 star category. The impact of the mass ratio was highly significant and most influential. Changing the mass ratio by an amount of 10% will raise the chance for the driver of the heavier car to get better off by about 18%. The impact of driver gender was again highly significant, showing a nearly 2 times lower injury risk for male drivers. With regard to the NCAP rating drivers of a high rated car are more than 2 times more probable (70% chance) to get off less injured in a frontal collision as compared to the driver of a low rated car.
Automotive Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and TechnologyrnAbstract: The degrees of injury severity, as a rule injuries scaled by AIS of specific regions of the human body, investigated out of road traffic accidents correspond to the body-specific loading values, which are found out with the aid of experimental or mathematical simulation of crash tests with motor vehicles or with sled tests. The coherence between the injured human being on the one hand and the physical and the theoretical model respectively on the other hand is established by the risk function, which describes the probability of degrees of injury severity in dependence on the protection criteria. Due to the different physical characteristics in the simulation, e.g. accelerations, forces, compressions and their velocity, the compilation of these quantities, comparable to the MAIS, the maximal occurred single AIS obtained in accident analysis is much more difficult in the simulation than in the accident occurrence. Therefore it is obvious to normalize the loading values gained out of simulation and to summarise them to an entire value in a suitable manner, the safety index.rn
The fact that ADAC Air Rescue handles approximately 4,000 road accident missions every year gave rise to set up an accident research programme for which ADAC Air Rescue provides its data. This data is of initial informational quality and will be supplemented by data from the police, experts, fire brigades as well as hospitals and forensic institutes. Although the number of cases is still rather low, certain tendencies can be identified. The causes for most accidents occur when joining or intersecting traffic, followed by speeding in road bends and tailgating. Many accidents involve HGV rear end collisions, often causing serious injuries, considerable damage and technical problems for the rescue operations. With regard to the various impact types, it has become obvious that most of the extremely serious injuries are inflicted during a passenger car side impact. In addition, access to and removal of trapped passengers is becoming more and more complicated, partly due to the increasing use of high-strength materials, and rescue operations tend to be more time consuming.
Bicyclists are minimally or unprotected road users. Their vulnerability results in a high injury risk despite their relatively low own speed. However, the actual injury situation of bicyclists has not been investigated very well so far. The purpose of this study was to analyze the actual injury situation of bicyclists in Germany to create a basis for effective preventive measures. Technical and medical data were prospectively collected shortly after the accident at the accident scenes and medical institutions providing care for the injured. Data of injured bicyclists from 1985 to 2003 were analyzed for the following parameters: collision opponent, collision type, collision speed (km/h), Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS), Maximum AIS (MAIS), incidence of polytrauma (Injury Severity Score >16), incidence of death (death before end of first hospital stay). 4,264 injured bicyclists were included. 55% were male and 45% female. The age was grouped to preschool age in 0.9%, 6 to 12 years in 10.8%, 13 to 17 years in 10.4%, 18 to 64 years in 64.7%, and over 64 years in 13.2%. The MAIS was 1 in 78.8%, 2 in 17.0%, 3 in 3.0%, 4 in 0.6%, 5 in 0.4%, and 6 in 0.2%. The incidence of polytrauma was 0.9%, and the incidence of death was 0.5%. The incidence of injuries to different body regions was as follows: head, 47.8%; neck, 5.2%, thorax, 21%; upper extremities, 46.3%; abdomen, 5.8%; pelvis, 11.5%, lower extremities, 62.1%. The accident location was urban in 95.2%, and rural in 4.8%. The accidents happened during daylight in 82.4%, during night in 12.2%, and during dawn/dusk in 5.3%. The road situation was as follows: straight, 27.3%; bend, 3.0%; junction, 32.0%; crossing, 26.4%; gate, 5.9%; others, 5.4%. The collision opponents were cars in 65.8%, trucks in 7.2%, bicycles in 7.4%, standing objects in 8.8%, multiple objects in 4.3%, and others in 6.5%. The collision speed was grouped <31 in 77.9%, 31-50 in 4.9%, 51-70 in 3.7%, and >70 in 1.5%. The helmet use rate was 1.5%. 68% of the registered head injuries were located in the effective helmet protection area. In bicyclists, head and extremities are at high risk for injuries. The helmet use rate is unsatisfactorily low. Remarkably, two thirds of the head injuries could have been prevented by helmets. Accidents are concentrated to crossings, junctions and gates. A significant lower mean injury severity was observed in victims using separate bicycle lanes. These results do strongly support the extension or addition of bicycle lanes and their consequent use. However, the lanes are frequently interrupted at crossings and junctions. This emphasizes also the important endangering of bicyclists coming from crossings, junctions and gates, i.e. all situations in which contact of bicyclists to motorized vehicles is possible. Redesigning junctions and bicycle traffic lanes to minimize the possibility of this dangerous contact would be preventive measures. A more consequent helmet use and use and an extension of bicycle paths for a better separation of bicyclists and motorized vehicle would be simple but very effective preventive measures.
In recent years special attention has been paid to reducing the number of fatalities resulting from road traffic accidents. The ambitious target to cut in half the number of road users who are killed each year by 2010 compared with the 2001 figures, as set out in the European White Paper "European Transport Policy for 2010: Time to Decide" implies a general approach covering all kinds of road users. Much has been achieved, e.g. in relation to the safety of car passengers and pedestrians but PTW accidents still represent a significant proportion of fatal road accidents. More than 6,000 motorcyclists die annually on European roads which amounts to 16% of the EU-15 road fatalities. The European Commission therefore launched in 2004 a Sub- Project dealing with motorcycle accidents within an Integrated Project called APROSYS (Advanced PROtection SYStems) forming part of the 6th Framework Programme. In a first step, the combined national statistical data collections of Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain were analysed. Amongst other things parameters like accident location, road conditions, road alignment and injury severity have been explored. The main focus of the analysis was on serious and fatal motorcycle accidents and the results showed similar trends in all four countries. From these results 7 accident scenarios were selected for further investigation via such in-depth databases as the DEKRA database, the GIDAS 2002 database, the COST 327 database and the Dutch element of the MAIDS database. Three tasks, namely the study of PTW collisions with passenger cars, PTW accidents involving road infrastructure features, and motorcyclist protective devices have been assessed and these will concentrate inter alia on accident causes, rider kinematics and injury patterns. A detailed literature review together with the findings of the in-depths database analysis is presented in the paper. Conclusions are drawn and the further stages of the project are highlighted.
Empirical vehicle crashworthiness studies are usually based on national or in-depth traffic accident surveys: Data on accident-involved cars/drivers are analysed in order to quantify the chance of driver injury and to assess certain risk factors like car make and model. As the cars/drivers involved in the same accident form a "cluster", where the size of the cluster equals the number of accident-involved parties, traffic accident survey data are typical multi-level data with accidents as first-level or primary and cars/drivers as secondlevel or secondary units (car occupants in general are to be considered as third level units). Consequently, appropriate statistical multi-level models are to be used for driver injury risk estimation purposes as these models properly account for the cluster structure of traffic accident survey data. In recent years various types of regression models for clustered data have been developed in the statistical sciences. This paper presents multi-level statistical models, which are generally applicable for vehicle crashworthiness assessment in the sense that data on single and multiple car crashes can be analysed simultaneously. As a special case of multi-level modelling driver injury risk estimation based on paired-by-collision car/driver data is considered. It is demonstrated that assessment results may be seriously biased, if the cluster structure inherent in traffic accident survey data is erroneously ignored in the data analysis stage.
Internationally, the need is expressed for harmonized traffic accident data collection (PSN, PENDANT, etc.). Together with this effort of harmonization, traffic accident investigation moves more and more in the direction of accident causation. As current methods only partly address these needs, a new method was set up. The main characteristics of this method are: • Accident/injury causation (associated) factors can objectively be identified and quantified, by comparison with exposure information from a normal population. • All relevant accident and exposure data can be included: human-, vehicle-, and environmental related data for the pre-crash, crash and postcrash situation (the so-called Haddon matrix). The level of detail can be chosen depending on interest and/or budget, which makes the method very flexible. In this paper the accident collection and control group method are presented, including some of the achieved results from a pilot study on 30 truck accidents and 30 control locations. The data were analyzed by using cross-tabulations and classification-tree analysis. The method proved useful for the identification of statistically significant causational aspects.
During the last 5 years, the number of cars fitted with side airbags has dramatically increased. They are now standard equipment, even on many smaller cars or less luxurious vehicles. While some side airbags offer thoracic protection alone, there are those that combine thoracic and head protection (of which most deploy from the seat). Other systems employ separate airbags for head and thorax protection, which are designed to be effective noticeably in a crash against a pole. This paper proposes an evaluation of the effectiveness of side airbags in preventing thoracic injuries to passenger car occupants involved in side crashes. First, the target population (who can take benefit of side airbag deployment and in what circumstances) is defined. Side airbags can be especially effective in cases of impacts on the door with intrusion at a certain impact speed. Then, an example case of a side impact with side airbag deployment is given were side airbag deployment is thought to have had a positive effect on injury outcome. A further case is presented where the impact configuration is likely to have reduced the effect of side airbag deployment on injury outcome. Finally, the estimation of side airbag effectiveness (in terms of additional occupant protection brought exclusively by the airbag) is proposed by comparing injury risk sustained by occupants in (more or less) similar cars (fitted or non fitted with airbags) because, during these years, car structure, and side airbag conception have considerably evolved. In-depth accident data from France, the UK and Germany has been collected. Out of 2,035 side impact accident cases available in the databases, we selected 435 occupants of passenger cars (built from 1998 onwards) involved in an injury accident between year 1998 and year 2004 for EES (Energy Equivalent Speed) values between 20km/h and 50km/h. The occupants, belted or not, were sat on the struck side, whatever the obstacle and type of accidents (intersection, loss of control, etc.). For multiple impact crashes, the side impact is assumed to be the more severe one. Passenger cars were fitted with (96) or without (339) side airbags. Most of the potential risk explanatory variables were correctly and reliably reported in the databases (velocity " impact zone " impact angle " occupant characteristics, etc.). The analysis compared injury risks for different levels of EES and different types of side airbags. A logistic regression model was also computed with injury variables (such as thoracic AIS 2+ or AIS 3+) as the dependant variable and other variables (including airbag type and EES) as explanatory injury risk factors. Results revealed statistically non-significant reductions in thoracic AIS 2+ and AIS 3+ injury risk in side airbag equipped cars in the impact violence range selected (odds ratio between 0.84 and 0.98 depending on types of airbags). The results are discussed. The non-significance is assumed to be due to a low number of cases. Statistical analysis for head injuries was not possible due to the low number of accident cases with passenger cars fitted with head airbags in the databases. Moreover, the discrepancies between the data coming from different countries (especially calculation of EES) might have introduced instability in the analysis.
In Germany, in-depth accident investigations are carried out in the Hannover area since 1973. In 1999 a second region was added with surveys in Dresden and the surrounding area. Internationally, the acronym GIDAS (German In-Depth Accident Study) is commonly used for these surveys. Compared to many other countries, the sample sizes of the GIDAS surveys are much larger. The goal is to collect 1.000 accidents involving personal injuries per year and region. Data collection takes place by using a sampling procedure, which can be interpreted as a two-stage process with time intervals as primary units and accidents as secondary units. An important question is, to what extend these samples are representative for the target population from which they are drawn. Analyses show, for example, that accidents with persons killed or seriously injured are overrepresented in the samples compared to accidents with slightly injured persons. This means, that these data are subject to biases due to uncontrolled variation of sample inclusion probability. Therefore, appropriate weighting and expansion methods have to be applied in order to adjust or correct for these biases. The contribution describes the statistical and methodological principles underlying the GIDAS surveys with respect to sampling procedure, data collection and expansion. In addition, some suggestions regarding potential improvements of study design are made from a methodological point of view.
Annually within the European Union, there are over 50,000 road accident fatalities and 2 million other casualties, of which the majority are either the occupants of cars or other road users in collision with a car. The European Commission now has competency for vehicle-based injury countermeasures through the Whole Vehicle Type Approval system. As a result, the Commission has recognised that casualty reduction strategies must be based on a full understanding of the real-world need under European conditions and that the effectiveness of vehicle countermeasures must be properly evaluated. The PENDANT study commenced in January 2003 in order to explore the possibility of developing a co-ordinated set of targeted, in-depth crash data resources to support European Union vehicle and road safety policy. Three main work activity areas (Work Packages) commenced to provide these resources. This paper describes some of the outcomes of Work Package 2 (WP2, In-depth Crash Investigations and Data Analysis). In WP2, some 1,100 investigations of crashes involving injured car occupants were conducted in eight EU countries to a common protocol based on that developed in the STAIRS programme. This paper describes the purposes, methodology and results of WP2. It is expected that the results will be used as a co-ordinated system to inform European vehicle safety policy in a systematic, integrated manner. Furthermore, the results of the data analyses will be exploited further to provide new directions to develop injury countermeasures and regulations.
Validation of human pedestrian models using laboratory data as well as accident reconstruction
(2007)
Human pedestrian models have been developed and improved continually. This paper shows the latest stage in development and validation of the multibody pedestrian model released with MADYMO. The biofidelity of the multibody pedestrian model has been verified using a range of full pedestrian-vehicle impact tests with a large range in body sizes (16 male, 2 female, standing height 160-192cm, weight 53.5-90kg). The simulation results were objectively correlated to experimental data. Overall, the model predicted the measured response well. In particular the head impact locations were accurately predicted, indicated by global correlation scores over 90%. The correlation score for the bumper forces and accelerations of various body parts was lower (47-64%), which was largely attributed to the limited information available on the vehicle contact characteristics (stiffness, damping, deformation). Also, the effects of the large range in published leg fracture tolerances on the predicted risk to leg fracture by the pedestrian model were evaluated and compared with experimental results. The validated mid-size male model was scaled to a range of body sizes, including children and a female. Typical applications for the pedestrian models are trend studies to evaluate vehicle front ends and accident reconstructions. Results obtained in several studies show that the pedestrian models match pedestrian throw distances and impact locations observed in real accidents. Larger sets of well documented cases can be used to further validate the models especially for specific populations as for instance children. In addition, these cases will be needed to evaluate the injury predictive capability of human models. Ongoing developments include a so-called facet pedestrian model with a more accurate geometry description and a more humanlike spine and neck and a full FE model allowing more detailed injury analysis.
While the number of fatal accidents is diminishing every year, there is still a need of improvement and action to prevent these deaths. Basis for this purpose has to be an analysis about the factors influencing the car crash mortality. There are various studies describing the univariate influence of several factors, but crash scenarios are too complex to be described by a single variable. The multivariate analysis respects the interference of the variables and gets so to more detailed and representative results. This multivariate analysis is based on about 2,600 cases (the data have been collected by the accident research units Hannover and Dresden (during the years 1999-2003). This paper presents a multivariate model (containing ten different variables) which detects 93% of these cases properly. This means it detects the cases as truly survived and truly death.
The need for improved EU level accident information and data was identified in the EU White Paper on Transport Policy (2001)1 and detailed in the Road Safety Action Plan (2003)2. The plan specifies that the EC will develop a road safety observatory to coordinate data collection within an integrated framework.
This study is aimed to investigate the correlations of impact conditions and dynamic responses with the injuries and injury severity of child pedestrians by accident reconstruction. For this purpose, the pedestrian accident cases were selected from Sweden and Germany with detailed information about injuries, accident cars, and accident environment. The selected accident cases were reconstructed using mathematical models of pedestrian and passenger car. The pedestrian models were generated based on the height, weight, and age of the pedestrian involved in accidents. The car models were built up based on the corresponding accident car. The impact speeds in simulations were defined based on the reported data. The calculated physical quantities were analyzed to find the correlation with injury outcomes registered in the accident database. The reconstruction approaches are discussed in terms of data collection, estimating vehicle impact speeds, pedestrian moving speeds and initial posture, secondary ground impact, validity of the mathematical models, as well as impact biomechanics.
The data situation for quantifying the proportion of accidents avoided by the introduction of active safety systems is incomplete, since there is generally no data available on the accidents avoided by the technology in question. In this paper, a split-register approach is suggested and compared with the classical case-control approach known from epidemiologic applications. Provided a set of assumptions hold, which can reasonably be made in such data situations, the split register approach allows inferences on the population accident risk. For both approaches the benefits of basing the analysis on the results of a logistic regression to adjust for confounding factors are outlined. The biasing effects of violating key assumptions are discussed and the split-register approach is demonstrated using the example of the active safety system ESP with data from the German in-depth accident study GIDAS.
Active safety systems are aimed at accident prevention, hence the knowledge required for their development is different from that required for passive safety systems aimed at injury prevention. Particularly, knowledge about accident causation is required. When looking at existing accident causation data, it is argued it fails to explain in sufficient detail how and why the accidents occur. Therefore, there is a need for detailed micro-level descriptions of accident causation mechanisms, and also of methodologies suitable for creating such descriptions. One study addressing these needs is the Swedish project FICA (Factors Influencing the Causation of Accidents and Incidents), where an accident investigation methodology suitable for active safety is developed, and in-depth accident investigations following this methodology are carried out on-scene in the area of Gothenburg by a multidisciplinary team. A preliminary aggregated analysis of different cases shows that the methodology developed is adequate for pointing out common contributing factors and devising principal countermeasures.
Electronic Stability Program (ESP) aims to prevent the lateral instability of a vehicle. Linked to the braking and powertrain systems, it prevents the car from running wide on a corner or the rear from sliding out. It also helps the driver control his trajectory, without replacing him, in the case of loss of control where the driver is performing an emergency manoeuvrer (confused and exaggerated steering wheel actions). A new ESP function optimizes ESP action in curves with hard under steering (situations in which the front wheels lose grip and the vehicle slides towards the outside of the curve). A complementary feature prevents the wheels from spinning when pulling away and accelerating. The name given to the ESP system varies according to the vehicle manufacturer, but other terms include: active stability control (ASC), automotive stability management system (ASMS), dynamic stability control (DSC), vehicle dynamic control (VDC), vehicle stability control (VSC) or electronic stability Control (ESC). This paper proposes an evaluation of the effectiveness of ESP in terms of reduction of injur accidents in France. The method consists of 3 steps: - The identification, in the French National injury accident census (Gendarmerie Nationale only), of accident-involved cars for which the determination of whether or not the car was fitted with ESP is possible. A sample of 1 356 cars involved in injury accidents occurred in 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003 was then selected. But we had to restrict the analysis to only 588 Renault Lagunas. - The identification of accident situations for which we can determine whether or not ESP is pertinent (for example ESP is pertinent for loss of control accidents whilst it is not for cars pulling out of a junction). - The calculation, via a logistic regression, of the relative risk of being involved in an ESPpertinent accident for ESP equipped cars versus unequipped cars, divided by the relative risk of being involved in a non ESP-pertinent accident for ESP equipped cars versus unequipped cars. This relative risk is assumed to be the best estimator of ESP effectiveness. The arguments for such a method, effectiveness indicator and implicit hypothesis are presented and discussed in the paper. Based on a few assumptions, ESP is proved to be highly effective. Currently, the relative risk of being involved in an ESP pertinent accident for ESP-equipped cars is lower (-44%, although not statistically significant)rnthan for other cars.rn
The so-called "seat-belt injuries" or "seat-belt syndromes", described as 2-point seat-belt injuries, contain heavy inflection injuries of the lumbal spinal column, combined with heavy abdominal injuries as rupture of the upper intestinal bold or heavy injuries of the upper entrails. With "playing" children in the font of the car, with inappropriate plant of 3-point belts, identical injuries can occur.
Rollover scenarios in Europe
(2005)
Rollover accidents seem to be a rising problem in Europe and therefore the systematic of this accident scenario should be investigated. Based on statistical investigations on major European accident databases for different countries a series of 73 real world rollover accidents was analysed. These cases were reconstructed using PC-Crash and preliminary categorised using a modified USbased rollover classification. In a first step, the rollover events were reconstructed from the point of conflict to the vehicle- rest position. The vehicles kinematics as well as its linear and rotational velocities were derived. In a second step typical velocity characteristics as well as kinematics were identified and the events categorised according to these criteria. Based on these results four main categories were defined, covering all reconstructed accidents. This categorisation was based on mechanical parameters (rotatory and translator kinematical data of the vehicle). Significant differences can be seen for different scenarios for the "first phase of rollover".
This paper describes the methodology of In-Depth Investigation in Germany on the example of GIDAS (German In-Depth Accident Study). Since 1999 in Germany a joint project between FAT (Forschungsvereinigung Automobiltechnik or Automotive Industry Research Association) and BASt (Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen or the Federal Road Research Institute) is being carried out in Hannover and Dresden. The methodology of this project is based on a statistically orientated procedure of data sampling (sampling plan, weighting factors). The paper describes the possibilities of such in-depth investigation on the results of the offered title. The accident cases were collected randomly within GIDAS at Hannover. There are more cases existing from previous investigation started in 1985 under the same methodology. The portion of rollovers can be established at 3.7% of all accidents with casualties in the year 2000. For the study 434 cases of car accidents with rollovers are used for a detail comprehensive analysis. The accidents happened in the years 1994 to 2000 in the Hannover area. The injury distribution will report about 741 occupants with rollover accident event. The presented paper will give an overview of the accident situations following in rollover movements of cars. The distributions of injury frequencies, injury severity AIS for the whole body and for the body regions of occupants will be presented and compared to technical details like the impact speed and the deformation pattern. The speed of the car was determined at the point of rollover and on the point of accident initiency. The characteristics of the kinematics followed in a rollover movement are analyzed and the major defined types of rollover will be shown in the paper. The paper will describe the possibilities of In-Depth Investigation methods for the approach of finding countermeasures on the example of car accidents with rollover and explaining the biomechanics of injuries in rollover movements.
This paper set out to examine the possibilities for injury avoidance implications for older drivers in crashes, based on crash and injury patterns among older drivers and current trends in ageing in most western societies. A number of safety technologies were identified and discussed which have potential for improving vehicle older driver crash avoidance and crashworthiness. While there were some promising estimates available of the likely benefits of this technology for improving safety, it is evident that they need to be confirmed for older drivers, given their age-related disabilities and sensory limitations. Further research is urgently required to ensure that these technologies yield safety benefits without any disbenefits for older drivers.rn
Nowadays airbags are part of the standard equipment in almost all new cars. While airbags are saving an increasing number of people from severe injuries and death in moderate and high speed crashes, they do not completely prevent dashboard injuries. The most common mechanism in dashboard injuries is a posteriorly directed force to the proximal tibia with the knee flexed. This may occur during a motor vehicle frontal impact accident when a knee of the driver or the front-seat passenger strikes the dashboard. The posterior force can be combined with a abducting or rotational force leading to concomitant lateral or posterolateral injury. Car and airbag manufacturers therefore develop special inflatable systems to reduce the impact force in dashboard injuries. Every new inflatable system, however, has to be evaluated in out of position situations in which the system might cause injuries to certain body areas. Therefore, we investigated a new kneebag system in different critical seating positions of post mortem test subjects (PMTS). The tested knee airbag module is a folded airbag (18 litre volume) which is installed below the lower section of the instrument panel of a passenger car. Using four PMTS (2 male, 2 female, age 36"67) the following positions were tested: normal seating position, knee flexed >90 degrees and knee flexed <60 degrees in static deployment tests with direct contact. In addition a dynamic test (48.8kph, AAMA-pulse) was carried out with the PMTS belted in a normal seating position. The inflation phase and the impact of the system on the knee/lower leg were analysed by high speed videos. After the test the lower legs of the PMTS were examined by Xray and autopsy. All soft tissue injuries and bone fractures were recorded. All the tests could be evaluated. Except some superficial skin lesions in the impact area no fracture of the bones around the knee and no knee ligament and tendon injuries were observed. Neither video analysis nor autopsy of the PMTS showed any critical contact injuries caused by the inflation process of the bag. Therefore, it can be concluded that in the tested seating positions which are the most critical for the knee area the knee bag system is safe.
This paper reviews briefly the evolution of the investigation of transport accidents from the early beginnings when individual events were studied but systematic data was not collected. In the transport modes other than on the roads, accident investigation early on, even of single events, was important in introducing safety improvements. Road accidents, however, evolved enormously with the growth of car ownership without any comparable political response to the consequent deaths and injuries, equivalent to what happened with the other modes. From the 1950s data bases started to contribute to our knowledge of the epidemiology of road traffic injuries, and in-depth sample studies have contributed much to the body of knowledge in the last 30 years. However, even the basic input and output variables of a crash, its severity and the seriousness of the outcomes in terms of injuries and their consequences are not complete or agreed upon. Issues of experimental design and sampling are discussed. It is proposed that the most important area for current research to address is the effect of population variations on injury outcomes. The need for the establishment of good data bases for active safety issues is emphasised with the consequent need for better links between the research community and the police.