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Accidents between right turning trucks and straight driving cyclists often show massive consequences. Accident severity in terms of seriously or fatally injured cyclists that are involved is much higher than in accidents of other traffic participants in other situations. It seems clear that adding additional mirrors will very likely not improve the situation. At ESV 2015, a methodology to derive test procedures and first test cases as well as requirements for a driver assist system to address blind spot accidents has been presented. However, it was unclear if and how testing of these cases is feasible, to what extent characteristics of different truck concepts (e.g. articulated vehicles, rigid vehicles) influence the test conduction and outcome, and what tolerances should be selected for the different variables. This work is important for the acceptance of a draft regulation in the UN working group on general safety. In the meantime, three test series using a single tractor vehicle, a tractor-semitrailer combination and a rigid vehicle have been conducted. The test tools (e.g. surrogate devices) have been refined. A fully crashable, commercially available bicycle dummy has been tested. If used correct, this dummy does follow a straight line quite precisely and it does not cause any damage to the truck under test in case of accidental impact. The dummy specifications are freely available. During testing, the different vehicle categories resulted in different trajectories being driven. Articulated vehicle combinations did first execute a turn into the opposite direction, and on the other hand, single tractor vehicles did behave comparable to passenger cars. A possible solution to take these behaviors into account is to require the vehicles to drive through a corridor that is narrow for a precise straight-driving phase and extends during the turn. Other investigated parameters are the dummy and vehicle speed tolerances. The results from this research make it possible to draft a regulation for a driver assistance system that helps to avoid blind spot accidents: test cases have been refined, their feasibility has been checked, and corridors for the vehicles and for important parameters (e.g. test speeds) have been set. The test procedure is applicable to all types of heavy goods vehicles. In combination with the accidentology (ESV 2015 paper), the work provides the basis for a regulation for such an assistance system.
One main objective of the EU-Project SENIORS is to provide improved methods to assess thoracic injury risk to elderly occupants. In contribution to this task paired simulations with a THOR dummy model and human body model will be used to develop improved thoracic injury risk functions. The simulation results can provide data for injury criteria development in chest loading conditions that are underrepresented in PMHS test data sets that currently proposed risk functions are based on. To support this approach a new simplified generic but representative sled test fixture and CAE model for testing and simulation were developed. The parameter definition and evaluation of this sled test fixture and model is presented in this paper. The justification and definition of requirements for this test set-up was based on experience from earlier studies. Simple test fixtures like the gold standard sled fixture are easy to build and also to model in CAE, but provide too severe belt-only loading. On the other hand a vehicle buck including production components like airbag and seat is more representative, but difficult to model and to be replicated at a different laboratory. Furthermore some components might not be available for physical tests at later stage. The basis of the SENIORS generic sled test set-up is the gold standard fixture with a cable seat back and foot rest. No knee restraint was used. The seat pan design was modified including a seat ramp. The three-point belt system had a generic adjustable load limiter. A pre-inflated driver airbag assembly was developed for the test fixture. Results of THOR test and simulations in different configurations will be presented. The configurations include different deceleration pulses. Further parameter variations are related to the restraint system including belt geometry and load limiter levels. Additionally different settings of the generic airbag were evaluated. The test set-up was evaluated and optimized in tests with the THOR-M dummy in different test configurations. Belt restraint parameters like D-ring position and load limiter setting were modified to provide moderate chest loading to the occupant. This resulted in dummy readings more representative of the loading in a contemporary vehicle than most available PMHS sled tests reported in the literature. However, to achieve a loading configuration that exposes the occupant to even less severe loading comparable to modern vehicle restraints it might be necessary to further modify the test set-up. The new generic sled test set-up and a corresponding CAE model were developed and applied in tests and simulations with THOR. Within the SENIORS project with this test set-up also volunteer and PMHS as well as HBM simulations are performed, which will be reported in other publications. The test environment can contribute in future studies to the assessment of existing and new frontal impact dummies as well as dummy improvements and related instrumentation. The test set-up and model could also serve as a new standard test environment for PMHS and volunteer tests as well as HBM simulations.
Für eine Reihe von EU Regelungen im Bereich Fahrzeugsicherheit erlaubt eine Verordnung bereits seit dem Jahr 2010 virtuelles Testen für die Typzulassungsprüfung. Technische Details bzw. konkrete Prozeduren für spezifische Regelungen sind in dieser Verordnung jedoch nicht enthalten. Das Hauptziel des europäischen Projekts IMVITER (lmplementation of Virtual Testing in Safety Regulations) war es, basierend auf der neuen Verordnung ein virtuelles Testverfahren auszuarbeiten und dabei offene Fragen zu berücksichtigen. Um die im Projekt-Konsortium unter Berücksichtigung der Anliegen aller Interessensgruppen wie Autohersteller, Zulassungsbehörden und technischer Dienste erarbeiteten offenen Punkte zu adressieren, wurde ein generisches Flussdiagramm entwickelt, das den Ablauf einer virtuell basierten Typprüfung darstellt. ln diesem Diagramm ist der virtuelle Typgenehmigungsprozess in drei aufeinander folgende Phasen aufgeteilt, die Verifikations-, Validierungs- und Typgenehmigungsphase. Von entscheidender Bedeutung ist die Phase der Validierung des Simulationsmodells, für die im IMVITER-Projekt eine Methodik vorgeschlagen wurde. Mit der im Projekt vorgeschlagenen Validierungsmethode ist kein Austausch des Simulationsmodells zwischen Fahrzeughersteller und technischem Dienst notwendig, so dass die Vertraulichkeit von Betriebsgeheimnissen nicht gefährdet ist. Zur Validierung des Modells werden jedoch immer Versuche notwendig sein. Dies gilt sowohl für die Überpruefung von passiven als auch aktiven Fahrzeugsicherheitssystemen. Eine zusammenfassende Betrachtung der Erfahrungen aus dem IMVITER-Projekt ergab, dass mit der Einführung von virtuellem Testen keine Erhöhung der Anforderungen an die Fahrzeugsicherheit bzgl. bestehender Regelungen verbunden sein sollte. Jedoch werden auch weiterhin neue zusäztliche Regelungen erforderlich sein, da sich das Unfallgeschehen und die Fahrzeugtechnologie weiterentwickeln und ändern werden. Diese sollten von Beginn an die Möglichkeiten des virtuellen Testens nutzen, insbesondere bei Testverfahren für neue Technologien, z.B. aktiver Fahrzeugsicherheitssysteme. Hier bieten virtuelle Testverfahren nicht nur eine Kosten- oder Zeitersparnis, sondern ermöglichen teilweise erst die sinnvolle Abprüfung von neuen Sicherheitssystemen, die mit aktuellen auf Hardware-Test basierenden Verfahren überhaupt nicht möglich wären.
Die Level kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugautomatisierung sind unter Fahrerassistenzexperten weithin bekannt und erleichtern das Verständnis. Sie können aber nicht Fahrzeugautomatisierung insgesamt zufriedenstellend beschreiben: Insbesondere temporär intervenierende Funktionen, die in unfallnahen Situationen eingreifen, können offensichtlich nicht nach dem Level kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugautomatisierung beschrieben werden. Diese beschreiben nämlich die zunehmende Aufgabenverlagerung vom Fahrer zur maschinellen Steuerung bei zunehmendem Automatisierungsgrad. Notbremsfunktionen, beispielsweise, sind offensichtlich diskontinuierlich und nehmen zugleich auf intensive Weise Einfluss auf die Fahrzeugsteuerung. Sie lassen sich gerade nicht sinnvoll nach dem Level kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugautomatisierung beschrieben. Das Ergebnis kann indes nicht zufriedenstellen. Die fehlende Sichtbarkeit dieser Funktionen wird ihrer Bedeutung für die Verkehrssicherheit nicht gerecht. Daher wird im Beitrag, um ein vollständiges Bild der Fahrzeugautomatisierung zu erlangen, ein umfassender Ansatz zur Beschreibung verfolgt, der sich auf oberster Ebene nach Wirkweise unterscheidet. Auf dieser Basis lassen sich sowohl informierende und warnende Funktionen als auch solche, die nur temporär in unfallgeneigten Situationen intervenieren, im Detail beschrieben. Das ermöglicht es, eine eigenständige Klassifikation für unfallgeneigte Situationen zu erstellen; dies kann für diese wichtigen Funktionen die eigenständige Sichtbarkeit herstellen, die ihrer Bedeutung gerecht wird.
Die Level kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugautomatisierung sind unter Fahrerassistenzexperten weithin bekannt und erleichtern das Verständnis. Sie können aber nicht Fahrzeugautomatisierung insgesamt zufriedenstellend beschreiben: Insbesondere temporär intervenierende Funktionen, die in unfallnahen Situationen eingreifen, können offensichtlich nicht nach dem Level kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugautomatisierung beschrieben werden. Diese beschreiben nämlich die zunehmende Aufgabenverlagerung vom Fahrer zur maschinellen Steuerung bei zunehmendem Automatisierungsgrad. Notbremsfunktionen, beispielsweise, sind offensichtlich diskontinuierlich und nehmen zugleich auf intensive Weise Einfluss auf die Fahrzeugsteuerung. Sie lassen sich gerade nicht sinnvoll nach dem Level kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugautomatisierung beschreiben. Das Ergebnis kann indes nicht zufriedenstellen: Die fehlende Sichtbarkeit dieser Funktionen wird ihrer Bedeutung für die Verkehrssicherheit nicht gerecht. Daher wird hier, um ein vollständiges Bild der Fahrzeugautomatisierung zu erlangen, ein umfassender Ansatz zur Beschreibung verfolgt, der auf oberster Ebene nach Wirkweise unterscheidet. Auf dieser Basis lassen sich sowohl informierende und warnende Funktionen als auch solche, die nur temporär in unfallgeneigten Situationen intervenieren, im Detail beschreiben. Das ermöglicht es, eine eigenständige Klassifikation für unfallgeneigte Situationen zu erstellen. Dies kann für diese wichtigen Funktionen die eigenständige Sichtbarkeit herstellen, die ihrer Bedeutung gerecht wird.
The levels of continuous vehicle automation have become common knowledge. They facilitate overall understanding of the issue. Yet, continuous vehicle automation described therein does not cover "automated driving" as a whole: Functions intervening temporarily in accident-prone situations can obviously not be classified by means of continuous levels. Continuous automation describes the shift in workload from purely human driven vehicles to full automation. Duties of the driver are assigned to the machine as automation levels rise. Emergency braking, e.g., is obviously discontinuous and intensive automation. It cannot be classified under this regime. The resulting absence of visibility of these important functions cannot satisfy " especially in the light of effect they take on traffic safety. Therefore, in order to reach a full picture of vehicle automation, a comprehensive approach is proposed that can map out different characteristics as "Principle of Operation" at top level. On this basis informing and warning functions as well as functions intervening only temporarily in near-accident situations can be described. To reach a complete picture, levels for the discontinuous, temporarily intervening functions are proposed " meant to be the counterpart of the continuous levels already in place. This results in a detailed and independent classification for accident-prone situations. This finally provides for the visibility these important functions deserve.
Test and assessment procedures for passive pedestrian protection based on developments by the European Enhanced Vehicle-safety Committee (EEVC) have been introduced in world-wide regulations and consumer test programmes, with considerable harmonization between these programmes. Nevertheless, latest accident investigations reveal a stagnation of pedestrian fatality numbers on European roads running the risk of not meeting the European Union- goal of halving the number of road fatalities by the year 2020. The branch of external road user safety within the EC-funded research project SENIORS under the HORIZON 2020 framework programme focuses on investigating the benefit of modifications to pedestrian test and assessment procedures and their impactors for vulnerable road users with focus on the elderly. Injury patterns of pedestrians and cyclists derived from the German In-Depth Accident Study (GIDAS) show a trend of AIS 2+ and AIS 3+ injuries getting more relevant for the thorax region in crashes with newer cars (Wisch et al., 2017), while maintaining the relevance for head and lower extremities. Several crash databases from Europe such as GIDAS and the Swedish Traffic Accident Data Acquisition (STRADA) also show that head, thorax and lower extremities are the key affected body regions not only for the average population but in particular for the elderly. Therefore, the SENIORS project is focusing on an improvement of currently available impactors and procedures in terms of biofidelity and injury assessment ability towards a better protection of the affected body regions, incorporating previous results from FP 6 project APROSYS and subsequent studies carried out by BASt. The paper describes the overall methodology to develop revised FE impactor models. Matched human body model and impactor simulations against generic test rigs provide transfer functions that will be used for the derivation of impactor criteria from human injury risk functions for the affected body regions. In a later step, the refined impactors will be validated by simulations against actual vehicle front-ends. Prototyping and adaptation of test and assessment procedures as well as an impact assessment will conclude the work of the project at the final stage. The work will contribute to an improved protection of vulnerable road users focusing on the elderly. The use of advanced human body models to develop applicable assessment criteria for the revised impactors is intended to cope with the paucity of actual biomechanical data focusing on elderly pedestrians. In order to achieve optimized results in the future, the improved test methods need to be implemented within an integrated approach, combining active with passive safety measures. In order to address the developments in road accidents and injury patterns of vulnerable road users, established test and assessment procedures need to be continuously verified and, where needed, to be revised. The demographic change as well as changes in the vehicle fleet, leading to a variation of accident scenarios, injury frequencies and injury patterns of vulnerable road users are addressed by the work provided by the SENIORS project, introducing updated impactors for pedestrian test and assessment procedures.
Supported by field accident data and monitoring results of European Regulation (EC) No. 78/2009, recent plans of the European Commission regarding a way forward to improve passive safety of vulnerable road users include, amongst other things, an extension of the head test area. The inclusion of passive cyclist safety is also being considered by Euro NCAP. Although passenger car to cyclist collisions are often severe and have a significant share within the accident statistics, cyclists are neither considered sufficiently in the legislative nor in the consumer ratings tests. Therefore, a test procedure to assess the protection potential of vehicle fronts in a collision with cyclists has been developed within a current research project. For this purpose, the existing pedestrian head impact test procedures were modified in order to include boundary conditions relevant for cyclists as the second big group of vulnerable road users. Based on an in-depth analysis of passenger car to cyclist accidents in Germany the three most representative accident constellations have been initially defined. The development of the test procedure itself was based on corresponding simulations with representative vehicle and bicycle models. In addition to different cyclist heights, reaching from a 6-year-old child to a 95%-male, also four pedal positions were considered. By reconstruction of a real accident the defined simulation parameters could be validated in advance. The conducted accident kinematics analysis shows for a large portion of the constellations an increased head impact area, which can reach beyond the roof leading edge, as well as high average values for head impact velocity and angle. Based on the simulation data obtained for the different vehicle models, cyclist-specific test parameters for impactor tests have been derived, which have been further examined in the course of head and leg impact tests. In order to study the cyclist accident kinematics under real test conditions, different full scale tests with a Polar-II dummy positioned on a bicycle have been conducted. Overall, the tests showed a good correlation with the simulations and support the defined boundary test conditions. Typical accident scenarios and simulations reveal higher head impact locations, angles and velocities. An extended head impact area with modified test parameters will contribute to an improved protection of vulnerable road users including cyclists. However, due to significantly differing impact kinematics and postures between the lower extremities of pedestrians and cyclists, these injuries cannot be addressed by the means of current test tools such as the flexible pedestrian legform impactor FlexPLI. Based on the findings obtained within the project as well as the existing pedestrian protection requirements a cyclist protection test procedure for use in legislation and consumer test programmes has been developed, whose requirements have been transferred into a corresponding test specification. This specification provides common head test boundary conditions for pedestrians and cyclists, whereby the existing requirements are modified and two parallel test procedures are avoided.
Neue Herausforderungen an die Unfallforschung durch Fahrerassistenz und automatisiertes Fahren
(2019)
Unfallrekonstruktion hat die Ableitung von Maßnahmen zur Minimierung der Unfallfolgen ermöglicht, vor allem durch Verbesserungen bei passiven Sicherheitseinrichtungen, aber auch durch die Verbesserung der Rettungskette, beispielsweise eCall. Heute können aktive Sicherheitssysteme die Unfallfolgen bereits vor der eigentlichen Kollision reduzieren oder durch Umfeldwahrnehmung und mittels Eingriff in die Fahrzeugsteuerung gegebenenfalls sogar vollständig verhindern. Funktionen, die aktiv in die Fahrzeugsteuerung eingreifen, lassen sich nach ihrer Wirkweise unterscheiden: zum einen handelt es sich um kontinuierlich automatisierende Funktionen, die meist länger aktiv bleiben (zum Beispiel ACC). Zum anderen um Funktionen, die in kritischen Fahrsituationen temporär in die Fahrzeugsteuerung eingreifen. Aufgezeigt wird, welche Konsequenzen und Risiken in Bezug auf diese Systeme sowie für bestimmte (zum Beispiel kritikale) Fahrsituationen anzunehmen sind. Zur Bewertung von aktiven Reglern, die in kritischen Fahrsituationen eingreifen, sind Unfalldaten nur noch eingeschränkt tauglich. Ähnliches gilt für die Bewertung von Ereignissen/ Zuständen im Rahmen kontinuierlicher Fahrzeugsteuerung, vor allem, wenn diese weiter vorausliegen. Wirkzusammenhänge automatisierter Fahrfunktionen müssen jedoch - gerade für den Mischverkehr mit konventionell gesteuerten Fahrzeugen - identifiziert werden. Dafür wird eine Szenariendatenbank mit relevanten Verkehrssituationen benötigt, in die Daten aus Naturalistic Driving Studies (NDS), aus Fahrversuchen oder Versuchen im Fahrsimulator eingehen können. Die zunehmende Durchdringung der Fahrzeugflotte mit kontinuierlich automatisierten Fahrfunktionen lässt eine Abnahme kritischer Fahrsituationen und eine Reduktion der Zahl der Verkehrsopfer erwarten. Allerdings verbleibt eine Restzahl an systemimmanenten Unfällen, die als unvermeidbar gelten müssen.
Anforderungen, Zielkonflikte
(2019)
Um Sicherheit und Umweltverträglichkeit von Straßen- bzw. Kraftfahrzeugen zu gewährleisten, werden an die Gestaltung der Fahrzeuge technische Anforderungen gestellt. Es gibt Anforderungen durch den Gesetzgeber, die erfüllt werden müssen, um ein Fahrzeug in den Verkehr bringen zu dürfen. Darüber hinaus bestehen herstellerinterne Anforderungen an das Produkt, die über das vom Gesetzgeber geforderte Maß hinausgehen, um den Kundenwünschen und der Firmenphilosophie zu genügen. Und als dritter Punkt stellen auch Verbraucherschutz-Organisationen Kriterien auf, anhand derer sie die Eigenschaften der auf dem Markt befindlichen Fahrzeuge bewerten und die Fahrzeuge eingruppieren, was dann der Kundeninformation dient. Auch diese Anforderungen gehen über die des Gesetzgebers hinaus. Das Setzen der gesetzlichen Mindestanforderungen ist für die Fahrzeugtechnik mittlerweile jedoch nicht mehr einzelnen Staaten überlassen. Vielmehr sind die für die Genehmigung von Fahrzeugtypen einzuhaltenden Bedingungen international harmonisiert: Für die EU sind dies EU-Richtlinien oder EU-Verordnungen, die von der Europäischen Kommission in Brüssel vorgeschlagen werden. Für über die EU hinausgehende Staaten bzw. Regionen sind dies unter anderem Regelungen der UN, erstellt von der UN-Wirtschaftskommission für Europa (UNECE) in Genf.
The term test procedure refers to a method that describes how a system has to be tested to identify and assess specific behavior or properties by experiments. This also includes the specification of required tools, equipment, boundary conditions, and evaluation methods. Test procedures are an essential tool to check whether desired product properties are present, which of course also applies to the development of driver assistance systems. In addition to development and release testing that mainly is performed by the vehicle or system manufacturer, there are tests with the purpose of an independent product testing that are conducted by external test organizations. These tests are needed for vehicle type approval (for admission to a specific market), in the context of applying the standard for functional safety (in both cases mainly executed by technical services (being accredited as certification laboratory)) or for customer information purposes (by a test institute for consumer protection). The focus of this chapter is these "external" test methods. After a taxonomy of test procedures, the differences between legislation (type approval) and consumer testing are highlighted. Typical tests and the associated test setup, tools, and assessment criteria are discussed, and an outlook toward testing in the near and mid-future is given.
The term driver assistance systems in the chapter title shall be understood to include vehicle automation. This chapter starts with a homogeneous and consistent classification and nomenclature of all kinds of driver assistance systems known and under discussion today (including vehicle automation). It thereby builds upon familiar classification schemes by the German Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt) and the standardization body SAE international. Detailed evaluation of the German legal situation for driver assistance systems and vehicle automation is provided in the following Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, an overview is given on the legal system in the US to reveal aspects relevant for vehicle automation. This is intended as initial information for those not acquainted to the US legal system which has been the first to regulate automation in several federal states. Finally, in Sect. 4, the current rating scheme of the European New Car Assessment Programme (EuroNCAP) is presented in comparison to legal instruments. The model of a consumer protection based approach proves to be a flexible instrument with great advantages in promoting new technologies. Technical vehicle regulations on the other hand rule minimum requirements. Both approaches are needed to achieve maximum vehicle safety.
The "Autonomous driving on the roads of the future: Villa Ladenburg Project" by the Daimler und Benz-Stiftung looks at degrees of automation that will only become technically feasible in the distant future. The treatment of the legal questions in the present chapter therefore draws heavily on the description of the use cases, which begin to provide a concrete basis for evaluating individual issues. Uncertainties in predicting future technical developments can be expected and will have a commensurate impact on the assumptions and conclusions of this chapter. The resulting uncertainty is nevertheless unavoidable if one wants to press ahead with important interrelated issues. This chapter is therefore intended as a contribution to the debate on societal aspects of automated driving from a legal perspective and not as a legalistic evaluation of the subject. The consideration will largely focus on the situation within the context of current German law. The legal views expressed are those of the author and are based on nine years of experience in the field of driver assistance system research. In terms of the underlying conception presented here, the societal dimension of autonomous vehicles addressed in the present project goes well beyond the adjustments to the legal framework currently being called for in Germany. The following will examine the question of "societal acceptance" in the context of the legal questions raised by autonomous vehicles. This line of investigation is not immediately obvious and covers only a segment of the more thoroughgoing focus of the project.